The significant role of submarine groundwater discharge in an Arctic fjord nutrient budget
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Abstract: Under global climate change, water flow and related nutrient biogeochemistry in the Arctic are changing at an unprecedented rate, and potentially affect nutrient cycling in the Arctic Ocean. However, nutrient fluxes via submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) are potentially important yet poorly understood in the Arctic. Here we quantified that nutrient fluxes through radium-derived SGD were three orders of magnitude higher than those from the local river and constituted 25%−96% of the total nutrient inputs into the Kongsfjorden. These large groundwater nutrient fluxes with high NIN/DIP molar ratio (average 99) may change the biomass and community structure of phytoplankton. Meanwhile, combining other SGD study cases around the Arctic region, SGD rates tend to increase over the past three decades, possibly on account of the effects of global warming. The SGD-derived nutrient may cause the increase of net primary productivity in the Arctic Ocean. The results will provide important basic data for land-ocean interactions in the typical fjord of the Arctic under the influence of global warming.
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Figure 1. Locations of the Kongsfjorden and sampling station during 2017. Blue circles, orange diamonds and red triangles represent surface water, river water and groundwater, respectively. Blue arrows indicate ocean currents of Atlantic Water (AW) and Arctic Coastal Water (ACW) (Zhu, 2022).
Figure 2. Vertical distributions of salinity, temperature, and density at stations K2, K3, K5 in Kongsfjorden.
Figure 3. The distributions of 226Ra (a) and 228Ra (b) activities (Bq/m3) in the different sources of Kongsfjorden.
Figure 4. The distributions of DIN, DIP and DSi concentrations (μmol/L) in the different water sources of the Kongsfjorden.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram for DIN and DIP budgets (all in mol/d) in the upper Kongsfjorden during our sampling period [some data from Piquet et al. (2014), Stewart et al. (2014), Zhu et al. (2016), Chen et al. (2018), Hop and Wiencke (2019), Kim et al. (2020)].
Figure 6. Locations of SGD flux study cases, as viewed from the geographic North Pole (a); distribution of SGD rates (cm/d) for each study site in the Arctic Ocean, the numbers correspond to the study cases in a (b); the trend of net primary production in the Arctic Ocean from 2000 to 2017 that modified from Lewis et al. (2020) (c). The distribution of SGD rates (cm/d) in the Arctic Ocean from 1983 to 2017 (d). The SGD rate data from Connolly et al. (2020), Whalen and Cornwell (1985), Dabrowski et al. (2020), Deming et al. (1992), Dimova et al. (2015), Dzyuba and Zektser (2013), Hay (1984), Lecher et al. (2016a), Lecher (2017), Linhoff et al. (2017), Neilson et al. (2018), Wales et al. (2020), Whalen and Charkin (1985).
Figure 7. The DIN/DIP molar ratios in SGD, river water, floating ice and surface seawater in the Kongsfjorden.
Table 1. Concentrations of 226Ra, 228Ra, nutrient and other parameters in all samples collected in the Kongsfjorden
Station Latitude Longitude Temp/℃ Salinity pH DO/
(mg·L−1)228Ra/
(Bq·m−3)226Ra/
(Bq·m−3)DIN/
(μmol·L−1)DIP/
(μmol·L−1)DSi/
(μmol·L−1)Seawater K2 78.9687°N 11.8292°E 3.7 31.7 8.3 12.9 2.4 ± 0.37 2.2 ± 0.32 5.17 0.234 0.591 K3 78.9518°N 11.9727°E 6.6 30.8 8.5 13.1 3.1 ± 0.45 2.5 ± 0.30 7.58 0.073 1.50 K4 78.9161°N 12.3308°E 6.7 31.3 8.5 13.0 2.3 ± 0.32 2.9 ± 0.25 − − − K5 78.9705°N 12.3811°E 7.3 32.3 8.4 12.7 2.0 ± 0.25 2.4 ± 0.22 7.68 0.103 1.99 K6 78.9592°N 12.3026°E 6.5 32.2 8.4 12.8 1.7 ± 0.27 2.3 ± 0.22 − − − K7 78.9303°N 12.2014°E 6.5 31.5 8.5 13.4 3.1 ± 0.25 3.3 ± 0.20 − − − K8 78.9936°N 12.3300°E 6.5 30.9 8.5 13.3 2.4 ± 0.25 2.4 ± 0.18 − − − K9 78.9302°N 12.4000°E 4.9 31.4 8.3 12.7 2.3 ± 0.40 2.8 ± 0.32 − − − K10 78.9405°N 12.1013°E 5.4 31.1 8.6 12.6 1.9 ± 0.30 2.1 ± 0.20 − − − Groundwater GW1 78.9300°N 11.9307°E 4.0 0.0 8.1 0.2 8.6 ± 0.30 6.1 ± 0.25 63.7 0.369 48.8 GW2 78.9502°N 11.9008°E 3.5 16.5 8.3 12.5 19.2 ± 0.37 8.6 ± 0.28 5.76 0.234 8.02 River water RW 78.9350°N 11.9203°E 1.9 0.2 8.6 13.0 3.5 ± 0.43 2.7 ± 0.28 11.8 0.330 10.5 Open sea K1 78.9899°N 11.6520°E 4.0 33.2 8.7 13.3 1.5 ± 0.48 2.0 ± 0.28 4.53 0.205 0.758 Notes: Temp: temperature; DO: dissolved oxygen concentration; Ra, DIN, DIP, DSi represent their concentrations. − represents no data. 
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