Corrections of shipboard GPS radiosonde soundings and applications on historical records in the eastern tropical Indian Ocean and South China Sea
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Abstract: Shipboard radiosonde soundings are important for detecting and quantifying the multiscale variability of atmosphere-ocean interactions associated with mass exchanges. This study evaluated the accuracies of shipboard Global Positioning System (GPS) soundings in the eastern tropical Indian Ocean and South China Sea through a simultaneous balloon-borne inter-comparison of different radiosonde types. Our results indicate that the temperature and relative humidity (RH) measurements of GPS-TanKong (GPS-TK) radiosonde (used at most stations before 2012) have larger biases than those of ChangFeng-06-A (CF-06-A) radiosonde (widely used in current observation) when compared to reference data from Vaisala RS92-SGP radiosonde, with a warm bias of 5℃ and dry bias of 10% during daytimes, and a cooling bias of –0.8℃ and a moist bias of 6% during nighttime. These systematic biases are primarily attributed to the radiation effects and altitude deviation. An empirical correction algorithm was developed to retrieve the atmospheric temperature and RH profiles. The corrected profiles agree well with that of RS92-SGP, except for uncertainties of CF-06-A in the stratosphere. These correction algorithms were applied to the GPS-TK historical sounding records, reducing biases in the corrected temperature and RH profiles when compared to radio occultation data. The correction of GPS-TK historical records illustrated an improvement in capturing the marine atmospheric structure, with more accurate atmospheric boundary layer height, convective available potential energy, and convective inhibition in the tropical ocean. This study contributes significantly to improving the quality of GPS radiosonde soundings and promotes the sharing of observation in the eastern tropical Indian Ocean and South China Sea.
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Figure 1. Geographical maps of GPS-TK (a) and CF-06-A (b) historical radiosonde records over the ETIO and SCS. Colored symbols represent the various years when the datasets were collected.
Figure 2. Temperature (a) and RH (c) profiles of RS92-SGP (red), CF-06-A (blue) and GPS-TK (black) launched at (0°N, 86°E) at 13:33, 5 April 2012; temperature (b) and RH (d) profiles launched at (0.026°N, 84°E) at 19:38, 4 April 2012; schematic on the simultaneous inter-comparison soundings (e). MS: middle stratosphere; LS: lower stratosphere; UT: upper troposphere; LT: lower troposphere.
Figure 3. Comparisons of GPS-TK radiosonde with COSMIC: mean (red) (a) and Root Mean Square (RMS) (blue) (b) of GPS-TK temperature difference in daytime; comparisons of GPS-TK radiosonde with COSMIC: mean (red) (c) and RMS (blue) (d) of GPS-TK RH difference in daytime; comparisons of GPS-TK radiosonde with COSMIC: mean (red) (e) and RMS (blue) (f) of GPS-TK temperature difference in nighttime; comparisons of GPS-TK radiosonde with COSMIC: mean (red) (g) and RMS (blue) (h) of GPS-TK RH difference in nighttime. The collocation of COSMIC is within 3 h and 400 km. Gray lines: individual GPS-TK difference. Gray lines in a, c, e, and g are the individual temperature differences for each inter-comparison. UT: upper troposphere; LT: lower troposphere.
Figure 4. Mean (a) and Root Mean Square (RMS) (b) of GPS-TK temperature differences in daytime; mean (c) and RMS (d) of CF-06-A temperature differences in daytime; mean (e) and RMS (f) of GPS-TK temperature differences in nighttime; mean (g) and RMS (h) of CF-06-A temperature differences in nighttime. Red lines: mean biases; gray lines: individual differences; blue lines: RMS. Gray lines in a, c, e, and g are the individual temperature differences for each inter-comparison. LT: lower troposphere; UT: upper troposphere; LS: lower stratosphere; MS: middle stratosphere. Updated figure of Xie et al. (2014).
Figure 5. Mean (a) and Root Mean Square (RMS) (b) of GPS-TK RH differences in daytime; mean (c) and RMS (d) of CF-06-A RH differences in daytime; mean (e) and RMS (f) of GPS-TK RH differences in nighttime; mean (g) and RMS (h) of CF-06-A RH differences in nighttime. Red lines: mean biases; gray lines: individual differences; blue lines: RMS. Gray lines in a, c, e, and g are the individual temperature differences for each inter-comparison. LS: lower stratosphere. UT: upper troposphere; LT: lower troposphere. Updated figure of Xie et al. (2014).
Figure 6. Around clock biases of temperature (a), RH (b), altitude (c), and refractivity (d) derived from GPS-TK minus RS92-SGP (blue line) and CF-06-A minus RS92-SGP (red line). The green line represents the daytime and nighttime demarcation line in local time. Rose-color values represent temperature (a), RH (b), altitude (c), and refractivity (d).
Figure 7. Temperature errors of GPS-TK (a) and CF-06-A (b) radiosondes in daytime and nighttime. Shown are: the mean nighttime error profile (blue), the mean sunrise time profile (green), the mean noontime profile (red), and the mean sunset time profile (purple). MS: middle stratosphere; LS: lower stratosphere; UT: upper troposphere; LT: lower troposphere.
Figure 8. RH errors of GPS-TK (a) and CF-06-A (b) radiosondes in daytime and nighttime. Shown are: the mean nighttime profile (blue), the mean sunrise-time profile (green), the mean noontime profile (red), and the mean sunset-time profile (purple). MS: middle stratosphere; LS: lower stratosphere; UT: upper troposphere; LT: lower troposphere.
Figure 9. Temperature errors of GPS-TK and CF-06-A corrected measurements by comparing to RS92-SGP. a and b. Mean and RMS temperature errors of corrected GPS-TK in daytime; c and d. mean and RMS temperature errors of corrected CF-06-A in daytime; e and f. mean and RMS temperature errors of corrected GPS-TK in nighttime; g and h. mean and RMS temperature errors of CF-06-A in nighttime. Red line: mean error. MS: middle stratosphere; LS: lower stratosphere; UT: upper troposphere; LT: lower troposphere.
Figure 10. RH errors of GPS-TK and CF-06-A corrected measurements by comparing to RS92-SGP. a and b. Mean and RMS RH errors of corrected GPS-TK in daytime; c and d. mean and RMS RH errors of corrected CF-06-A in daytime; e and f. mean and RMS RH errors of corrected GPS-TK in nighttime; g and h. mean and RMS RH errors of CF-06-A in nighttime. Red line: mean error. LS: lower stratosphere; UT: upper troposphere; LT: lower troposphere.
Figure 11. Inter-comparison of GPS-TK historical records with COSMIC temperature measurements before and after correction. a and b. Mean and RMS temperature differences of GPS-TK in daytime before correction; c and d. mean and RMS temperature differences of GPS-TK in daytime after correction; e and f. mean and RMS temperature differences of GPS-TK in nighttime before correction; g and h. mean and RMS temperature differences of GPS-TK in nighttime after correction. Gray lines in a, c, e, and g are the individual temperature differences for each inter-comparison. The collocation of COSMIC is 3 h and 400 km. UT: upper troposphere; LT: lower troposphere.
Figure 12. Inter-comparison of GPS-TK historical records with COSMIC RH measurements before and after correction. a and b. Mean and RMS RH differences of GPS-TK in daytime before correction; c and d. mean and RMS RH differences of GPS-TK in daytime after correction; e and f. mean and RMS RH differences of GPS-TK in nighttime before correction; g and h. mean and RMS of GPS-TK RH differences in nighttime after correction. Gray lines in a, c, e, and g are the individual RH differences for each inter-comparison. The collocation of COSMIC is 3 h and 400 km. UT: upper troposphere; LT: lower troposphere.
Figure 13. Atmospheric boundary layer height derived from RS92-SGP (red), GPS-TK (black) and CF-06-A (blue) in daytime (a, b) and nighttime (c, d) flights. Horizontal ordinate represents the release sample number. a and c are derived from measurements before corrections; b and d are after corrections.
Figure 14. Histograms of CAPEs (a) and CINs (b) derived from GPS-TK historical soundings during the JJA (June, July and August, 2006–2011) before (blue) and after (red) corrections.
Table 1. Characteristics of GPS-TK, CF-06-A, and RS92-SGP radiosonde systems (updated table of Xie et al., 2014)
Radiosonde Manufacturer
and countryTemperature sensor Humidity sensor Digital frequency
specificationAnti-radiation coating Weight/g GPS-TK LAGEO, IAP,
Beijing (China)band-gap thermistor:
type SHT 10,
range from −40℃ to +125℃,
resolution 0.04℃,
response time 5 s,
uncertainty N/A,
area 4.94 mm × 7.47 mm,
software adjustment, nopolymer capacitive:
type SHT 10,
range from 0% to 100%RH,
resolution 0.4% RH,
response time 8 s,
uncertainty N/A,
area 4.94 mm × 7.47 mm,
software adjustment, norange from 400 MHz
to 406 MHz,
tuning N/A,
stability N/A,
R/S power N/Ano aluminised 150 CF-06-A Beijing Changfeng
Micro-electronics
Technology Co.
(China)bead thermistor:
type MF51MP,
range from −90℃ to +60℃,
resolution 0.1℃,
response time 0.8 s,
uncertainty 0.5℃,
diameter 0.8 mm,
software adjustment, yesthin-film capacitor:
type Sweden XC06,
range from 0% to 100 % RH,
resolution 1 % RH,
response time 1.5 s,
uncertainty 5% RH,
area 3.8 mm × 5 mm,
software adjustment, norange from 400 MHz
to 406 MHz,
tuning, any in range,
stability +/− 10 kHz,
R/S power 100 mWspace micro-process
anti-radiation technology,
aluminized, protective cap270 RS92-SGP Vaisala, Ltd.
(Finland)thin wire capacitor:
range from −90℃ to +60℃,
resolution 0.1℃,
response time 0.4 s,
uncertainty 0.2℃,
diameter 0.5 mm,
software adjustment, yesthin-film capacitor,
heated twin sensor
(polymer for low RH):
type RD100,
range from 0%−100% RH,
resolution 1% RH,
response time 0.5 s,
uncertainty 2% RH,
area 2.5 mm × 2.5 mm,
software adjustment, yesrange from 400 MHz
to 406 MHz,
tuning 10 kHz,
stability +/− 2 kHz,
R/S power 60 mWreflectivity coating,
aluminized, shiny silver290 Note: R/S, root mean square power; N/A, not available. 
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Table 2. Details of 20 simultaneous balloon-borne radiosonde flights over the ETIO
No. Longitude Latitude Local time Day/night No. Longitude Latitude Local time Day/night 1* 111.092°E 7.860°N Feb. 28, 14:00 day 11 82.504°E 3.485°S Mar. 20, 20:00 night 2 90.483°E 6.009°N Mar. 10, 18:00 day 12 82.535°E 4.474°S Mar. 21, 08:00 day 3 90.462°E 6.050°N Mar. 11, 00:00 night 13 80.080°E 4.989°S Mar. 22, 20:00 night 4 89.003°E 5.993°N Mar. 11, 20:00 night 14 80.003°E 3.494°S Mar. 23, 14:00 day 5 86.995°E 6.020°N Mar. 13, 20:00 night 15 80.014°E 2.995°S Mar. 23, 20:00 night 6 84.497°E 5.964°N Mar. 15, 20:00 night 16 80.090°E 0.494°S Mar. 25, 02:00 night 7 82.469°E 6.001°N Mar. 16, 19:00 night 17 80.132°E 0.017 °SMar. 25, 14:00 day 8 82.535°E 0.943°N Mar. 18, 20:00 night 18 80.049°E 0.492°N Mar. 25, 20:00 night 9 82.508°E 0.009°S Mar. 19, 02:00 night 19 84.009°E 0.026°N Apr. 04, 19:00 night 10 82.544°E 1.454°S Mar. 19, 20:00 night 20 86.002°E 0.003°N Apr. 05, 14:00 day Note: Bold font represents the daytime flights and unbold font represents the nighttime flights. Symbol * represents the missing of RS92-SGP measurement. Local time format: month day, hour (UTC+6).
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