Spatiotemporal variation and freeze-thaw asymmetry of Arctic sea ice in multiple dimensions during 1979 to 2020
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Abstract: Arctic sea ice is broadly regarded as an indicator and amplifier of global climate change. The rapid changes in Arctic sea ice have been widely concerned. However, the spatiotemporal changes in the horizontal and vertical dimensions of Arctic sea ice and its asymmetry during the melt and freeze seasons are rarely quantified simultaneously based on multiple sources of the same long time series. In this study, the spatiotemporal variation and freeze-thaw asymmetry of Arctic sea ice were investigated from both the horizontal and vertical dimensions during 1979–2020 based on remote sensing and assimilation data. The results indicated that Arctic sea ice was declining at a remarkably high rate of –5.4 × 104 km2/a in sea ice area (SIA) and –2.2 cm/a in sea ice thickness (SIT) during 1979 to 2020, and the reduction of SIA and SIT was the largest in summer and the smallest in winter. Spatially, compared with other sub-regions, SIA showed a sharper declining trend in the Barents Sea, Kara Sea, and East Siberian Sea, while SIT presented a larger downward trend in the northern Canadian Archipelago, northern Greenland, and the East Siberian Sea. Regarding to the seasonal trend of sea ice on sub-region scale, the reduction rate of SIA exhibited an apparent spatial heterogeneity among seasons, especially in summer and winter, i.e., the sub-regions linked to the open ocean exhibited a higher decline rate in winter; however, the other sub-regions blocked by the coastlines presented a greater decline rate in summer. For SIT, the sub-regions such as the Beaufort Sea, East Siberian Sea, Chukchi Sea, Central Arctic, and Canadian Archipelago always showed a higher downward rate in all seasons. Furthermore, a striking freeze-thaw asymmetry of Arctic sea ice was also detected. Comparing sea ice changes in different dimensions, sea ice over most regions in the Arctic showed an early retreat and rapid advance in the horizontal dimension but late melting and gradual freezing in the vertical dimension. The amount of sea ice melting and freezing was disequilibrium in the Arctic during the considered period, and the rate of sea ice melting was 0.3 × 104 km2/a and 0.01 cm/a higher than that of freezing in the horizontal and vertical dimensions, respectively. Moreover, there were notable shifts in the melting and freezing of Arctic sea ice in 1997/2003 and 2000/2004, respectively, in the horizontal/vertical dimension.
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Key words:
- Arctic sea ice /
- sea ice area /
- sea ice thickness /
- spatiotemporal variation /
- freeze-thaw asymmetry
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Figure 1. Location map of sub-regions in the Arctic. 1. Beaufort Sea, 2. Chukchi Sea, 3. East Siberian Sea, 4. Laptev Sea, 5. Kara Sea, 6. Barents Sea, 7. Greenland Sea, 8. Baffin Bay & Gulf of St. Lawrence Sea, 9. Canadian Archipelago, 10. Hudson Bay, 11. Central Arctic, and 12. Bering Sea & Sea of Okhotsk.
Figure 3. The annual (a) and seasonal (b–e) variations of sea ice area (SIA) during 1979 to 2020. The red dashed line represents the trend line.
Figure 4. The annual (a) and seasonal (b−e) variations of sea ice thickness (SIT) during 1979 to 2020. The red dashed line represents the trend line.
Figure 5. Spatial patterns of Arctic sea ice concentration (SIC). a and b indicate the initial and final states of SIC in 1979 and 2020, respectively, and c and d represent the annual trend rate of SIC and its P-value of significance test, respectively.
Figure 6. Spatial patterns of Arctic Sea ice thickenss (SIT). a and b indicate the initial and final states of SIT in 1979 and 2020, respectively; c and d represent the annual trend rate of SIT and its P-value of significance test, respectively.
Figure 7. The monthly changes of sea ice area and sea ice thickness in the 12 sub-regions from 1979 to 2020. a. Beaufort Sea, b. Chukchi Sea, c. East Siberian Sea, d. Laptev Sea, e. Kara Sea, f. Barents Sea, g. Greenland Sea, h. Baffin Bay & Gulf of St. Lawrence Sea, i. Canadian Archipelago, j. Hudson Bay, k. Central Arctic, and l. Bering Sea & Sea of Okhotsk.
Figure 8. The annual variation of sea ice melting and freezing amount in the horizontal dimension (a) and vertical dimension (b) during 1980 to 2020.
Figure 9. M-K mutation test for the changes in the amount of sea ice melting and freezing in the horizontal (a and b) and vertical dimensions (c and d) from 1980 to 2020.
Table 1. The annual and seasonal trend rates of SIA in different periods
Time scale Trend rate of SIA/(104 km2 · a–1) 1979–1990 1991–2000 2001–2010 2011–2020 Winter −2.5 −2.4 −5.4 −2.8 Spring −4.8 −4.1 −7.2 −5.0 Summer −4.2 −4.6 −13.4 −3.8 Autumn 0.7 −8.9 −11.0 −13.0 Annual −3.4 −5.1 −8.8 −7.8 Note: The bold numbers indicate that the trends are significant at the 95% confidence level. 
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Table 2. The annual and seasonal trend rates and mean of SIA in the sub-regions of the Arctic from 1979 to 2020
Region Trend rate of SIA/(103 km2 · a−1) and mean SIA/ (104 km2) Annual Winter Spring Summer Autumn Trend Mean Trend Mean Trend Mean Trend Mean Trend Mean Beaufort Sea −3.3 83.7 0.6 100.3 −1.4 92.9 −9.5 53.7 −2.9 88.0 Chukchi Sea −4.6 66.0 0.2 89.5 −2.1 81.9 −9.3 32.1 −7.5 60.5 East Siberian Sea −5.0 84.4 0.3 103.4 −1.2 98.1 −12.8 47.7 −6.4 88.4 Laptev Sea −3.8 63.6 −0.4 80.0 −7.2 43.7 −7.5 50.0 −0.2 80.8 Kara Sea −5.3 56.9 −1.4 81.5 −4.0 72.9 −7.6 19.3 −7.8 53.9 Barents Sea −8.1 29.8 −11.4 52.9 −10.7 41.3 −1.7 4.1 −7.5 20.9 Greenland Sea −3.4 34.8 −5.0 49.1 −3.1 43.2 −2.1 13.7 −3.0 33.1 Baffin Bay & Gulf of St. Lawrence Sea −5.1 59.1 −7.6 113.9 −5.4 77.2 −2.3 7.5 −4.8 38.0 Canadian Archipelago −1.2 58.5 0.6 71.1 −0.7 66.6 −3.1 34.2 −1.5 62.2 Hudson Bay −2.5 66.9 −0.3 121.7 −3.1 99.3 −1.5 7.4 −4.1 39.1 Central Arctic −4.9 281.6 −0.9 296.0 −1.3 294.9 −12.1 253.3 −4.8 282.1 Bering Sea & Sea of Okhotsk −4.4 43.6 −10.2 118.8 −5.1 42.2 0.0 0.0 −2.0 12.9 Note: The bold numbers indicate that the trends are significant at the 95% confidence level.
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Table 3. The annual and seasonal trend rates of SIT in different periods
Time scale Trend rate of SIT/(cm · a–1) 1979–1990 1991–2000 2001–2010 2011–2020 Winter −0.5 −2.9 −3.2 0.1 Spring 0.2 −2.9 −3.4 0.7 Summer −0.3 −3.5 −4.4 −0.2 Autumn 0.0 −3.8 −5.1 −1.1 Annual 0.2 −2.9 −4.1 0.1 Note: The bold numbers indicate that the trends are significant at the 95% confidence level.
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Table 4. The annual and seasonal trend rates and mean of SIT in the sub-regions of the Arctic during 1979 to 2020
Region Trend rate (cm/a) and mean (m) of SIT Annual Winter Spring Summer Autumn Trend Mean Trend Mean Trend Mean Trend Mean Trend Mean Beaufort Sea −3.6 2.1 −3.0 2.4 −3.5 2.6 −4.5 1.6 −3.7 1.7 Chukchi Sea −3.4 1.6 −2.8 2.1 −3.4 2.3 −4.0 1.0 −3.5 1.1 East Siberian Sea −3.5 1.7 −2.7 2.0 −3.3 2.3 −4.5 1.1 −3.7 1.2 Laptev Sea −1.8 1.3 −1.3 1.5 −1.6 1.8 −2.5 0.7 −2.1 1.0 Kara Sea −2.0 0.9 −1.8 1.3 −2.5 1.4 −1.9 0.4 −1.7 0.6 Barents Sea −0.9 0.3 −1.3 0.5 −1.4 0.5 −0.4 0.1 −0.7 0.2 Greenland Sea −0.2 0.2 −0.3 0.3 −0.1 0.3 −0.2 0.1 −0.3 0.2 Baffin Bay & Gulf of St. Lawrence Sea −0.3 0.3 −0.3 0.6 −0.4 0.5 −0.3 0.1 −0.3 0.2 Canadian Archipelago −2.4 1.4 −1.9 1.7 −2.1 1.8 −3.2 1.0 −2.4 1.2 Hudson Bay −0.4 0.6 −0.1 1.1 −0.7 1.1 −0.3 0.1 −0.2 0.2 Central Arctic −3.2 2.5 −3.1 2.6 −2.9 2.9 −3.6 2.2 −3.5 2.2 Bering Sea & Sea of Okhotsk −0.2 0.1 −0.4 0.4 −0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 −0.1 0.0 Note: The bold numbers indicate that the trends are significant at the 95% confidence level.
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Table 5. The mutation years and the rates before and after the mutation for the sea ice melting and freezing amount
Dimension Melting/
freezing
amountMutation
yearRate before
mutationRate after
mutationHorizontal melting 1997 −2.5 × 104 km2/a −2.9 × 104 km2/a freezing 2000 2.3 × 104 km2/a 3.2 × 104 km2/a Vertical melting 2003 −0.4 cm/a −0.7 cm/a freezing 2004 0.4 cm/a 1.0 cm/a
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