Overview of the studies on the interactions between atmosphere, sea ice, and ocean in the Arctic Ocean and its climatic effects: contributions from Chinese scientists
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Abstract: The year, 2024, marks the 40th anniversary of Chinese research expeditions in the polar regions and the 25th anniversary of its Arctic research expeditions. China has conducted 14 national Arctic research expeditions. With the increase of understandings on the global impacts of the changes of Arctic climate system, especially on China’s weather and climate, and demands for commercial utilization of the Arctic sea routes, Chinese scientists have made great progresses on on-site and remote sensing observation technologies for Arctic Ocean, interaction mechanisms between atmosphere, sea ice, and ocean, the connection mechanism between the Arctic Ocean and other regions, and have achieved a series of research results. This study summarizes the research achievements by Chinese scientists in the above-mentioned aspects or beyond, identifies knowledge gaps, and based on this, discusses prospects and provides suggestions. From a perspective of observation, improving the observation capabilities of the Arctic Ocean in winter and the ocean under the ice, as well as floe-scale processes of sea ice and mesoscale and submesoscale processes of the ocean, is an urgent task to be addressed. Strengthening international cooperation is necessary for building a monitoring network for the Arctic marine environment. From a perspective of numerical simulation, the descriptive ability and parameterization scheme of sub-grid processes based on observational evidence need to be developed. From a perspective of cross-sphere interactions, in addition to the multi-media coupling within the Arctic Ocean that this review focuses on, the interaction between the Arctic Ocean and land or ice sheet (Greenland), especially the water cycle process, is also a scientific domain that needs to be considered, in the context of Arctic warming and humidification. From a perspective of climate effects, the physical mechanisms that affect the robustness of teleconnection need to be clarified.
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Key words:
- CHINARE /
- Arctic Ocean /
- Atmosphere /
- Sea ice /
- Climate
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Figure 1. Trajectories of the ship north of 70° N during the first to thirteen CHINARE-Arctic cruises and the drifting trajectory of MOSAiC ice camp. Also shown are the ice concentration obtained on 17 September, 2023, with the annual minimum ice extent being observed, and the monthly averaged ice extent in September 1981–2010.
Figure 2. The ARVs (left), AUVs (middle), and buoys (right) deployed during the CHINARE-Arctic cruises
Figure 3. Deployment schematic diagram of the Unmanned Ice Station, which includes the units of meteorology, sea ice mass balance, sea ice optic, ocean fixed-layer measurement, and ocean profiler.
Figure 4. Drifting trajectories of the ice-tethered buoys deployed during the third to thirteen CHINARE-Arctic cruises and the MOSAiC expedition by the Chinese scientists.
Figure 5. Sea ice motion vector in the Arctic Ocean on April 19, 2019, and the ice age obtained in the week of April 16–22, 2019 (left); the lead distribution over the western Arctic Ocean on April 19, 2019 (right).
Figure 6. Arctic atmosphere-sea ice-ocean coupling system and the internal crucial interactions
Figure 7. Mechanism of the formation and maintenance of Arctic atmospheric inversion layer
Figure 8. Crucial thermodynamic and dynamic processes of Arctic sea ice and their coupling mechanisms.
Figure 9. Evolution of the large-scale circulation in the Arctic Ocean: (a) Early period with a limited BG and a large extent of sea ice versus (b) Later period with an expansion of BG and dramatic retreat of sea ice. The salinity profile sections were obtained from (a) the drifting profiling platform with the drifting along the BG during 1988, available from the World Ocean Database at
https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/world-ocean-database , and (b) the D-TOP with the drifting along the TPD during 2020–2022.
Figure 10. Ocean temperature changes between
2081 –2100 and 1981–2000 projected by CMIP6 climate models under high CO2 emission scenario: (a) upper 700-m ocean temperature changes, and (b) ocean temperature changes along the section of A–B (30°E–150°W).
Figure 11. Comparison of average sea ice thickness during late summer (September 16–30, 2016), based on (a) CryoSat-2, (b) Combined Model and Satellite Thickness (CMST), and (c) Analysis (ANA). The ANA estimates incorporate both sea ice thickness and concentration observations for assimilation, whereas CMST assimilates only sea ice concentration during the summer.
Figure 12. Projected fastest available trans-Arctic sea routes for (a) 2021–2040 and (b) 2061–2080 under the low-emission SSP1-2.6 scenario, based on 20-year daily averaged sea ice thickness and concentration data. Blue lines represent sea routes accessible for the open-water (OW) vessels, while red lines indicate routes for the vessels of Polar Class 6 (PC6). The color gradient and varying line width reflect the density (days per year) of overlapping routes at specific locations.
Figure 13. Sketch of the influence of Arctic Amplification and associated sea ice loss on the Northern Hemisphere mid-latitude winter weather and climate: with the AA, AO, NAO, and PDO denoting the Arctic Amplification, Arctic Oscillation, Northern Atlantic Oscillation, and Pacific Decadal Oscillation, respectively
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