Unveiling controls of the latitudinal gradient of surface pCO2 in the Kuroshio Extension and its recirculation regions (northwestern North Pacific) in late spring
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Abstract: In the northwestern North Pacific, annual net air-sea CO2 flux is greatest in the Kuroshio Extension (KE) zone, owing to its low annual mean partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2), and it decreases southward across the basin. To quantify the influences of factors controlling the latitudinal gradient in CO2 uptake, sea surface pCO2 and related parameters were investigated in late spring of 2018 in a study spanning the KE, Kuroshio Recirculation (KR), and subtropical zones. We found that the sea-to-air pCO2 difference (ΔpCO2) was negative and at its lowest in the KE zone. ΔpCO2 gradually increased southward across the KR zone, and the sea surface was nearly in air-equilibrium with atmospheric CO2 in the subtropical zone. We found that northward cooling and vertical mixing were the two major processes governing the latitudinal gradient in surface pCO2 and ΔpCO2, while biological influences were relatively minor. In the KE zone affected by upwelling, the vertical-mixing-induced increase in surface pCO2 likely canceled out approximately 61% of the decrease in surface pCO2 caused by cooling and biological activities. Moreover, the prolonged air-sea equilibration for CO2 and relatively short hydraulic retention time jointly led to the low surface pCO2 in the KE zone in spring. Ultimately, the cooling KE current flows out of the region before it can be re-equilibrated with atmospheric CO2.
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Figure 1. Study area and surface data. a. Northwestern North Pacific and sampling sites in May 2018. Circles and pluses in a represent conductivity-temperature-depth/pressure and underway sampling stations, respectively. The climatological mean annual net air-sea CO2 flux was replotted from Takahashi et al. (2009). Negative values indicate oceanic CO2 uptake. Approximate locations of Oyashio Current, Kuroshio Current, Kuroshio Extension (KE), Kuroshio Recirculation (KR), Subtropical Countercurrent (STCC), Kuroshio front (KF), and Subtropical front (SF) are also illustrated (Kobashi et al., 2006; Kitamura et al., 2016; Oka et al., 2018). b. Monthly mean chlorophyll a (Chl a) concentration in May 2018 obtained from
https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov (while lines indicate the cruise track). c. Underway sea surface temperature (SST), atmospheric and water pCO2 from May 10 to June 7, 2018. For pCO2, 1 μatm=0.101 Pa. Discrete water pCO2 was calculated from dissolved inorganic carbon and total alkalinity values collected at the sampling stations shown in a. Discrete pCO2 at 28°C was calculated using the formula pCO228°C=pCO2×e0.0423(28−SST) following Takahashi et al. (2002).
Figure 2. Distributions of sea surface temperature (a), salinity (b), pCO2 (c), and chlorophyll a (Chl a) (d) from mid-May to early June in 2018. For pCO2, 1 μatm=0.101 Pa.
Figure 3. Latitudinal variations in underway and discreate parameters along the 147°E transect in May 2018. Discrete parameters were collected on stations. For pCO2, 1 μatm=0.101 Pa. Red vertical dashed lines denote the Kuroshio front (KF) and subtropical front (SF). KE: Kuroshio Extension, KR: Kuroshio Recirculation.
Figure 4. Water potential temperature (θ) versus salinity diagrams and vertical distributions. a, b. θ–S diagrams, c. temperature (black line) and potential density (σθ) (white line), d. salinity, e. DIC, f. TAlk, g. apparent oxygen utilization (AOU), and h. pCO2 along the 147°E transect in May 2018. In a and b, the contour lines represent σθ, and colors indicate TAlk and DIC in the upper 200 m. For pCO2, 1 μatm=0.101 Pa. KE: Kuroshio Extension, KR: Kuroshio Recirculation, STCC: Subtropical Countercurrent, NPTW: North Pacific Tropical Water, STMW: Subtropical Mode Water, NPIW: North Pacific Intermediate Water.
Figure 5. Plots of sea surface pCO2 versus temperature (a) and chlorophyll a (Chl a) (b), temperature-normalized surface pCO2 at 28°C versus Chl a (c), and major processes controlling surface pCO2 distribution (d) in the study area. For pCO2, 1 μatm=0.101 Pa. In a, black line represents temperature-driven variability of
$p{\rm{CO}}_2^{\rm{T}} $ =390×exp[0.0423(SST−28)], gray rectangles indicate atmospheric pCO2, and black circles indicate data obtained in the subtropical zone (21°−27°N), red and blue diamonds indicate data obtained in the KR zone (27°−35°N) and KE zone (35°−39°N), respectively. In d, Processes ① and ② indicate that vertical mixing results in DIC increase (increasing pCO2) and sea surface temperature (SST) drawdown (decreasing pCO2), respectively. Process ③ indicates SST recovery from vertical-mixing-induced SST drawdown as the mixed surface water absorbs heat from the atmosphere, thereby canceling out the effect of vertical-mixing-induced SST drawdown on surface pCO2.
Figure 6. Latitudinal distributions (21°−39°N, 147°E) of pCO2 difference between seawater and air (
$\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{sea-air}}} $ ) (a), partial changes in$\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{sea-air}}} $ related to individual biogeochemical processes of cooling (ΔpCO2Cool), biological activities ($\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Bio}}} $ ), atmospheric pCO2 variations ($\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Air}}} $ ), and the residual ($\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Residual}}} $ ) (b), and latitudinal distributions of temperature-normalized pCO2 at 28°C (c), NDIC (d), and NTAlk (e) along the 147°E transect in May 2018. For pCO2, 1 μatm=0.101 Pa. White dashed lines indicate potential density and black dots indicate sampling layers. Red vertical dashed lines denote the Kuroshio front (KF) and subtropical front (SF). KE: Kuroshio Extension, KR: Kuroshio Recirculation.Table 1. Characteristics of water masses and surface currents in surface (2 m), 30 m, and 150/200 m layers along the 147°E (21°−39°N) transect and to the east of Luzon Strait (21°N, 123°−126°E) in May 2018
Zone Depth
/mWater Temperature
/°CSalinity AOU
/(µmol·kg−1)DIC
/(µmol·kg−1)TAlk
/(µmol·kg−1)pCO2
/µatmSubtropical zone
(21°−27°N)2 STCC 27.74±0.60 34.78±0.14 −9±2 1 960±9 2281±7 387±2 30 STCC 26.80±1.24 34.80±0.13 −9±1 1 963±12 2285±7 374±11 150 NPTW 20.41±1.38 34.97±0.06 14±8 2 025±16 2295±6 373±18 KR zone
(27°−35°N)2 KR 21.90±0.67 34.77±0.10 −7±1 1 992±7 2277±6 365±13 30 KR 21.00±0.50 34.80±0.07 −12±5 1 996±8 2281±4 354±12 200 STMW 17.58±0.39 34.82±0.02 17±8 2 036±6 2279±4 381±11 KE zone
(35°−39°N)2 KE 16.00±0.44 34.46±0.13 −26±6 2 006±4 2264±6 324±10 30 KE 14.74±0.99 34.42±0.12 −15±2 2 026±10 2266±8 339±13 200 NPIW 9.67±3.10 34.14±0.33 37±25 2 101±34 2263±6 437±63 East of Luzon Strait (21°N) 2 Kuroshio 28.81±0.57 34.33±0.07 −11±4 1 933±5 2256±4 388±7 30 Kuroshio 27.38±0.74 34.43±0.16 −11±1 1 941±14 2265±11 369±10 150 NPTW 21.94±0.91 34.96±0.04 12±14 2 011±21 2297±4 372±28 Note: STCC, Subtropical Countercurrent; NPTW, North Pacific Tropical Water; KR, Kuroshio Recirculation; KE, Kuroshio Extension; STMW, Subtropical Mode Water; NPIW, North Pacific Intermediate Water. 
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Table 2. Measured pCO2 (
$ p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Meas}}} $ ), simulated temperature-dependent pCO2 ($ p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{T}}} $ ), and the difference between$ p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Meas}}} $ and$p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{T}}} $ in areas to the south and north of the Kuroshio front from October 1990 to July 1991 and in May 2018Time South of the Kuroshio front North of the Kuroshio front Temperature
/°C$p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{T}}} $/μatm $p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Meas}}} $/μatm $p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Meas}}} $ −$p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{T}}} $/μatm Temperature
/°C$p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{T}}} $/μatm $p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Meas}}} $/μatm $p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Meas}}} $ −$p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{T}}} $/μatm Oct. 1990 26.0 314 330 16 26.0 314 330 16 Jan. 1991 20.0 244 290 46 14.5 193 330 137 Feb. 1991 18.5 229 300 71 14.5 193 320 127 May 1991 21.5 260 300 40 16.5 210 270 60 Jun. 1991 24.0 289 320 31 22.0 265 310 45 Jul. 1991 29.5 364 365 1 25.0 301 310 9 May 2018 21.7 262 358 57 16.1 207 321 114
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Table 3. Partial changes in pCO2 difference related to individual biogeochemical processes of cooling (
$\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Cool}}} $ ), biological activities ($\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Bio}}} $ ), atmospheric pCO2 variations ($\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Air}}} $ ), and the residual ($\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Residual}}} $ )Zone $\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{sea-air}}} $/μatm $\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Cool}}} $/μatm $\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Bio}}} $/μatm $\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Air}}} $/μatm $\Delta p{\rm{CO}}_2^{{\rm{Residual}}} $/μatm Subtropical zone −5±2 −4±10 −2±2 1±1 0±10 KR zone −31±10 −89±9 0±2 −3±2 61±7 KE zone −76±16 −154±4 −24±6 −7±1 109±8
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Table 4. Air-sea equilibrium time for CO2 versus hydraulic residence time in the Kuroshio Extension zone
Air-sea equilibrium Temperature/°C DIC/(μmol·kg−1) CO2/(μmol·kg−1) Revelle factor Wind speed/(m·s−1) dML/m Equilibrium
time/d16.0±0.4 2006±4 11.8±0.4 10.5±0.2 5−10 50 139−554 Hydraulic residence Longitude Latitude Current speed/(m·s−1) Distance/km Residence time/d 140°−150°E 35°N 0.2−0.5 850 20−49
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